Speech Acts in Linguistics

In linguistics, a speech act is an utterance defined in terms of a speakers intention and the effect it has on a listener. Essentially, it is the action that the speaker hopes to provoke in his or her audience. Speech acts might be requests, warnings, promises, apologies, greetings, or any number of declarations. As you might imagine, speech acts are an important part of communication. Speech-Act Theory Speech-act theory is a subfield of pragmatics. This area of study is concerned with the ways in which words  can be used not only to present information but also to carry out actions. It is used in linguistics, philosophy, psychology, legal and literary theories, and even the development of artificial intelligence. Speech-act theory was introduced in 1975 by Oxford philosopher J.L. Austin in How to Do Things With Words  and further developed by American philosopher J.R. Searle. It considers three levels or components of utterances: locutionary acts (the making of a meaningful statement, saying something that a hearer understands), illocutionary acts (saying something with a purpose, such as to inform), and perlocutionary acts (saying something that causes someone to act). Illocutionary speech acts can also be broken down into different families, grouped together by their intent of usage. Locutionary, Illocutionary, and Perlocutionary Acts To determine which way a speech act is to be interpreted, one must first determine the type of act being performed.  Locutionary acts  are, according to Susana Nuccetelli and Gary Seays Philosophy of Language: The Central Topics, the mere act of producing some linguistic sounds or marks with a certain meaning and reference. So this is merely an umbrella term, as illocutionary and perlocutionary acts can occur simultaneously when locution of a statement happens. Illocutionary acts, then, carry a directive for the audience. It might be a promise, an order, an apology, or an expression of thanks—or merely an answer to a question, to inform the other person in the conversation. These express a certain attitude and carry with their statements a certain illocutionary force, which can be broken into families.   Perlocutionary acts, on the other hand, bring about a consequence to the audience. They have an effect on the hearer, in feelings, thoughts, or actions, for example, changing someones mind. Unlike illocutionary acts, perlocutionary acts can project a sense of fear into the audience. Take for instance the perlocutionary act of saying, I will not be your friend. Here, the impending loss of friendship is an illocutionary act, while the effect of frightening the friend into compliance is a perlocutionary act. Families of Speech Acts As mentioned, illocutionary acts can be categorized into common families of speech acts. These define the supposed intent of the speaker. Austin again uses How to Do Things With Words to argue his case for the five most common classes:   Verdictives, which present a findingExercitives, which exemplify power or influenceCommissives, which consist of promising or committing to doing somethingBehabitives, which have to do with social behaviors and attitudes like apologizing and congratulatingExpositives, which explain how our language interacts with itself David Crystal, too, argues for these categories in Dictionary of Linguistics. He lists several proposed  categories, including directives (speakers try to get their listeners to do something, e.g. begging, commanding, requesting), commissives (speakers commit themselves to a future course of action, e.g. promising, guaranteeing), expressives (speakers express their feelings, e.g. apologizing, welcoming, sympathizing), declarations (the speakers utterance brings about a new external situation, e.g. christening, marrying, resigning). It is important to note that these are not the only categories of speech acts, and they are not perfect nor exclusive. Kirsten Malmkjaer points out in Speech-Act Theory, There are many marginal cases, and many instances of overlap, and a very large body of research exists as a result of peoples efforts to arrive at more precise classifications. Still, these five commonly accepted categories do a good job of describing the breadth of human expression, at least when it comes to illocutionary acts in speech theory. Sources Austin, J.L. How to Do Things With Words. 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975. Crystal, D. Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2008. Malmkjaer, K. Speech -Act Theory. In The Linguistics Encyclopedia, 3rd ed. New York, NY: Routledge, 2010. Nuccetelli, Susana (Editor). Philosophy of Language: The Central Topics. Gary Seay (Series Editor), Rowman Littlefield Publishers, December 24, 2007.

Do I Make Money Or Does Money Make Me - 937 Words

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Child Labour A Historically Important Role With Future Repercussions Essay Example For Students

Child Labour: A Historically Important Role With Future Repercussions Essay In a modern society that views childhood as not only an important part of one’s life but as a fundamental growing stage, the idea of child labour has taken on a severely negative connotation; so much so that as consumers we attempt to remove ourselves from any countries that associate with this practice. However Canada during the late 19th and early 20th century used child labour as a major workforce and had 80’000 immigrant child workers migrating to Canada largely from Great Britain. The development and use of child labour during the 19th and early 20th century was a manifestation of the need for children to economically support their families, however it was the availability of children from mass rises in British immigration, supplemented by a lack policy in place for the protection of children that created a rise in the use of children for work purposes; despite this a compilation of factors including both changing ideas of childhood and the effects of labour and delinquency , the dangers of industrial work and most prominently the idea of education and its importance had profound effects of the decline of child labour in the mid 20th century. A profound factor that forced this type of labour on Canada was the massive immigration of children during this period from Brit ain. For the most part these children were from the streets of Great Britain brought over by rescue or missionary groups. These groups would take children from the streets and sent them to Canada via these rescue programs and from there they would be re-introduced into society into better home, however these homes required funding for taking on a new child and so because no policies existed to prevent children from working, it was of better benefit to the c. .bour in Canada, and allowed for a transition into what we consider today to be normal working conditions and ages for children. Canadian perspective has obviously changed since this time of child labour and its use in Canada specifically, but during this time it represented necessary labour force in order to sustain families during a time of economic hardship. Through its benefits of supporting families in both urban and rural setting it was a necessary evil in during this time in Canadian history; however changing policies pushing for an educated population and a clearer understanding of the dangers involved in the workforce led to a consensus nationwide that child labour although necessary at one point was no longer necessary and instead a danger to a population which was already falling into crime and unnecessary injury.

Career Paper Chef free essay sample

In this career field there are many different ways you can go because you have so many cultures that have different types of food for example Chinese, Japanese, Mexican, Italian, Indian, Mongolian, American, etc. There are many different types of chefs you have Executive, Sous, Pastry, Station, Saucier, Poissonier (Fish Chef), Entremetier (Vegetable Chef), Rotisseur (Meat Chef), Pantry, Line, Expediter. Here is a Description of all. Executive Chef (Chef de Cuisine): The executive chef is the boss of the kitchen. There is usually only one per restaurant (or chain), so the competition to get to the top of the field is fierce, and it can take years of formal training at a culinary school as well as decades of experience to land the job of your dream. As executive chef, you rarely worry about the details of food preparation, instead acting as the overseer, keeping the kitchen running smoothly and planning the menu with new dishes that you devise. We will write a custom essay sample on Career Paper Chef or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Sous Chef: The sous chef is the right hand of the executive chef, and there can be more than one. These professionals do a lot more of the micromanaging in the kitchen, seeing to the details of each dish and working in the trenches to make sure everything is properly prepared. Pastry Chef (Patissier): In most cases, becoming a patissier requires a different type of culinary training, usually at a baking school or in a baking program rather than a straightforward culinary school. The bulk of this work is centered around pastries, breads, and desserts, and depending on where you work, you could become the equivalent of an executive chef. Station Chef (Chef de Partie): The station chef is usually in charge of just one part of the kitchen: for example, the soups, the salads, or the grill. They work under the sous chef or executive chef to make sure all food prepared and put out of their station is of the highest level for quality and appearance. Saucier: The saucier’s sole responsibility is to prepare the sauces. Although it might not sound like much, certain types of cuisine (particularly French) are all about the sauce. Fish Cook (Poissonier): The poissonier works with seafood, both in preparation and in cooking. Vegetable Cook (Entremetier): The entremetier can take on a variety of roles, depending on the type of cuisine. For the most part, he or she deals in soups, vegetables, potatoes and rice, and egg dishes Meat Cook (Rotisseur): The rotisseur is the mastermind of meat. From roasting and braising to broiling and grilling, the rotisseur does it all. In many cases, the tasks will overlap with those of the saucier, especially when it comes to gravies. Pantry Chef (Gard Manger): The pantry chef is in charge of all cold items, from salad and hors d’oevres to cold sauces and dressings. One big aspect of this job is making the food appear presentable. Line Cook (Commis): The line cook is typically an entry-level position in which you work alongside the rest of the kitchen doing what needs to be done. You may cut vegetables one day and plate dishes on another. It is a fast-paced position with plenty of room for upward mobility. Expediter: The expediter is the bridge between the kitchen and the wait staff. These individuals are the last line of food preparation before the plate reaches the table, and are responsible for delivering the plate either via their own hands or that of the waiter. This position is often taken over by the executive chef him or herself, especially when it’s vital to ensure that the dish is perfect before it goes out. No matter where you start out and what your specialty, there is a place for you in the culinary world. And with the right training and dedication, you could be just a few years away from an upper-level position where respect and better pay await your command. In West Virginia there are 12 job openings as a chef. In the United States there are 11,144 job openings as a chef. In the world there are 1524 job opening as a chef. Here are the estimated salaries for the different chefs $20,000, $40,000, $60,000, $80,000, $100,000. My second job choice if this one does not work out is to be a teacher’s aide. The only requirements for this job are taking a test from them, background check, and TB test. The advances in this field are for every 12 hours of college credit you have you get a pay raise.